Everything about Burma totally explained
Burma, officially the
Union of Myanmar (
Burmese:, ), is the largest country by geographical area in mainland
Southeast Asia.
The
British began conquering Burma in 1824 and incorporated the country into the
British Raj in 1886. Burma was administered as a province of British India until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. The country became independent from the United Kingdom on
4 January 1948, as the "Union of Burma". It became the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" on
4 January 1974, before reverting to the "Union of Burma" on
23 September 1988. On
18 June 1989, the
State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) adopted the name "Union of Myanmar" for English transliteration. This controversial name change in English isn't recognised by opposition groups and several nations.
The country is bordered by
China on the northeast,
Laos on the east,
Thailand on the southeast,
Bangladesh on the west, and
India on the northwest, with the
Bay of Bengal to the southwest. One-third of Burma's total perimeter, 1,930 kilometers (1,199
mi), forms an uninterrupted
coastline.
Burma's diverse population has played a major role in defining its politics, history and demographics in modern times, and the country continues to struggle to mend its ethnic tensions. Its
political system remains under the tight control of SPDC, the
military led government, since 1992, by Senior General
Than Shwe. The military has dominated government since General
Ne Win led a coup in 1962 that toppled the civilian government of
U Nu. The country's culture, heavily influenced by neighbours, is based on
Theravada Buddhism intertwined with local elements.
The name of the country
The name
"Myanmar" is derived from the local short-form name
Myanma Naingngandaw, the name used by the regime currently in power in the country. While the etymology of the name is unclear, it has been used since the 13th Century primarily as a reference to the Myanma ethnic group. Until the mid-19th century, rulers in the region identified themselves with the areas that they ruled. For example, the 18th Century king,
Alaungpaya alternately referred to himself as the ruler of
Tampradipa and Thunaparanta,
Ramanadesa, and
Kamboza (all alternate names of places in the Irrawaddy Valley) in correspondence with the
East India Company. In older English documents the usage was
Bermah, and later
Burmah, possibly from the Portuguese
Birmania which is thought to be a corruption of the Indian word for Burma,
Bama. Burma is known as
Birmanie in French,
Birmania in both Italian and Spanish, and
Birmânia in Portuguese.
Confusion among English speakers on how to pronounce 'Myanmar' gives rise to pronunciations such as and /miˈɑːnmɑr/.
On
18 June 1989, the
Burmese military junta passed the "Adaptation of Expressions Law" that
officially changed the English version of the country's name from
Burma to
Myanmar, and changed the English versions of many place names in the country along with it, such as its former
capital city from
Rangoon to
Yangon (which represents its pronunciation more accurately in
Burmese though not in
Arakanese). This prompted one scholar to coin the term "Myanmarification" to refer to the top-down programme of political and cultural reform in the context of which the renaming was done. The action was strictly an executive act, not based on any statutory authority, and the government didn't hold a national referendum to have the Burmese electorate ratify the name change. Various non-Bamar ethnic groups choose to not recognize the name because the term
Myanmah has historically been used as a label for the majority ethnic group rather than for the country.
Various world entities have chosen to accept or reject the name change. The
United Nations accepts the name Myanmar, since the UN allows its members states to be known by any name they choose. However it hasn't been recognized by many
Western governments such as the
United States,
Australia,
Canada or the
United Kingdom, which continue to use "Burma", while the
European Union uses "Burma/Myanmar" as an alternative. China hasn't agreed to change its translations and continues to use 缅甸，Japan uses the name Myanmar (ミャンマー) but calls the people Burmese (ビルマ人), France continues to use Birmanie, and most other countries continue to use their traditional translations.
Use of "Burma" and its adjective, "Burmese", remains common in the United States and Britain. Many news organizations, such as the
BBC, The Financial Times,
The Times, Voice of America, The Washington Post, USA Today,
ITN, Sky News, Bangkok Post and others still use these forms.
MSNBC, ABC, NBC, CBS,
The Economist, The Wall Street Journal,
The New York Times and others use "Myanmar" as the country name and "Burmese" as the adjective. The
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation also refers to both names in their news articles.
Geography
Burma, which has a total area of 678,500 square kilometers (261,970 sq mi), is the largest country in mainland
Southeast Asia, and the 40th-largest in the world (after
Zambia). It is somewhat smaller than the U.S. state of
Texas and slightly larger than
Afghanistan.
It is located between
Chittagong Division of
Bangladesh and
Assam,
Nagaland and
Manipur of
India to the northwest. It shares its longest borders with
Tibet and
Yunnan of
China to the northeast for a total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). Myanmar is bounded by
Laos and
Thailand to the southeast. Burma has a 1,930 km (1,199 mi) of contiguous coastline along the
Bay of Bengal and
Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one-third of its total perimeter.]]
In the north, the
Hengduan Shan mountains form the border with China.
Hkakabo Razi, located in
Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 m (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Burma. Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist within Burma, all of which run north-to-south from the
Himalayas. The mountain chains divide Burma's three river systems, which are the
Ayeyarwady,
Salween (Thanlwin), and the
Sittang rivers. The lands along the coast support all varieties of
tropical fruits. In the Dry Zone, vegetation is sparse and stunted.
Typical
jungle animals, particularly
tigers and
leopards, are common in Burma. In upper Burma, there are
rhinoceros, wild
buffalo,
wild boars,
deer,
antelope and
elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the
lumber industry. Smaller
mammals are also numerous, ranging from
gibbons and
monkeys to
flying foxes and
tapirs. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including
parrots,
peafowl,
pheasants,
crows,
herons and
paddybirds. Among
reptile species there are
crocodiles,
geckos,
cobras,
Burmese pythons and
turtles. Hundreds of species of
freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.
History
Early history
The
Mon people are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the lower
Ayeyarwady valley, and by the mid-900s BC were dominant in southern Burma. The Mons became one of the first in South East Asia to embrace
Theravada Buddhism.
The
Tibeto-Burman speaking
Pyu arrived later in the 1st century BC, and established several city states – of which
Sri Ksetra was the most powerful – in central Ayeyarwady valley. The Mon and Pyu kingdoms were an active overland trade route between
India and
China. The Pyu kingdoms entered a period of rapid decline in early 9th century AD when the powerful kingdom of
Nanzhao (in present-day
Yunnan) invaded Ayeyarwady valley several times. In 835, Nanzhao decimated the Pyu by carrying off many captives to be used as conscripts.
Bagan (1044-1287)
Tibeto-Burman speaking
Burmans, or the
Bamar, began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from present-day
Yunnan's Nanzhao kingdom starting in 7th century AD. Filling the power gap left by the Pyu, the Burmans established a small kingdom centered in
Bagan in 849. But it wasn't until the reign of King
Anawrahta (1044-1077) that Bagan's influence expanded throughout much of present-day Burma.
After Anawrahta's capture of the Mon capital of
Thaton in 1057, the Burmans adopted Theravada Buddhism from the Mons. The
Burmese script was created, based on the
Mon script, during the reign of King
Kyanzittha (1084-1112). Prosperous from trade, Bagan kings built many magnificent temples and pagodas throughout the country – many of which can still be seen today.
Bagan's power slowly waned in 13th century.
Kublai Khan's
Mongol forces invaded northern Burma starting in 1277, and sacked Bagan city itself in 1287. Bagan's over two century reign of Ayeyarwady valley and its periphery was over.
Small kingdoms (1287-1531)
The Mongols couldn't stay for long in the searing Ayeyarwady valley. But the
Tai-Shan people from Yunnan who came down with the Mongols fanned out to the Ayeyarwady valley, Shan states, Laos, Siam and Assam, and became powerful players in
South East Asia.
The Bagan empire was irreparably broken up into several small kingdoms:
- The Burman kingdom of Ava or Innwa (1364-1555), the successor state to three smaller kingdoms founded by Burmanized Shan kings, controlling Upper Burma (without the Shan states)
- The Mon kingdom of Hanthawady Pegu or Bago (1287-1540), founded by a Mon-ized Shan King Wareru (1287-1306), controlling Lower Burma (without Taninthayi).
- The Rakhine kingdom of Mrauk U (1434-1784), in the west.
- Several Shan states in the Shan hills in the east and the Kachin hills in the north while the northwestern frontier of present Chin hills still disconnected yet.
This period was characterized by constant warfare between Ava and Bago, and to a lesser extent, Ava and the Shans. Ava briefly controlled Rakhine (1379-1430) and came close to defeating Bago a few times, but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Nevertheless, Burmese culture entered a golden age. Hanthawady Bago prospered. Bago's Queen Shin Saw Bu (1453-1472) raised the gilded
Shwedagon Pagoda to its present height.
By the late 15th century, constant warfare had left Ava greatly weakened. Its peripheral areas became either independent or autonomous. In 1486, King
Minkyinyo (1486-1531) of
Taungoo broke away from Ava and established a small independent kingdom. In 1527,
Mohnyin (Shan: Mong Yang)
Shans finally captured Ava, upsetting the delicate power balance that had existed for nearly two centuries. The Shans would rule Upper Burma until 1555.
Taungoo (1531-1752)
Reinforced by fleeing Burmans from Ava, the minor Burman kingdom of
Taungoo under its young, ambitious king
Tabinshwehti (1531-1551) defeated the more powerful Mon kingdom at
Bago, reunifying all of
Lower Burma by 1540. Tabinshwehti's successor King
Bayinnaung (1551-1581) would go on to conquer
Upper Burma (1555),
Manipur (1556),
Shan states (1557),
Chiang Mai (1557),
Ayutthaya (1564, 1569) and
Lan Xang (1574), bringing most of western South East Asia under his rule. Bayinnaung died in 1581, preparing to invade
Rakhine, a maritime power controlling the entire coastline west of Rakhine Yoma, up to
Chittagong province in Bengal.
Bayinnaung's massive empire unraveled soon after his death in 1581. Ayutthaya
Siamese had driven out the Burmese by 1593 and went on to take
Tanintharyi. In 1599,
Rakhine forces aided by the Portuguese mercenaries sacked the kingdom's capital
Bago. Chief Portuguese mercenary
Filipe de Brito e Nicote (Burmese:
Nga Zinga) promptly rebelled against his Rakhine masters and established Portuguese rule in
Thanlyin (Syriam), then the most important seaport in Burma. The country was in chaos.
The Burmese under King
Anaukpetlun (1605-1628) regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1611. Anaukpetlun reestablished a smaller reconstituted kingdom based in Ava covering Upper Burma, Lower Burma and Shan states (but without Rakhine or Taninthayi). After the reign of King Thalun (1629-1648), who rebuilt the war-torn country, the kingdom experienced a slow and steady decline for the next 100 years. The Mons successfully rebelled starting in 1740 with French help and Siamese encouragement, broke away Lower Burma by 1747, and finally put an end to the House of Taungoo in 1752 when they took
Ava.
Konbaung (1752-1885)
King
Alaungpaya (1752-1760), established the
Konbaung Dynasty in
Shwebo in 1752. He founded
Yangon in 1755. By his death in 1760, Alaungpaya had reunified the country. In 1767, King
Hsinbyushin (1763-1777) sacked
Ayutthya. The
Qing Dynasty of
China invaded four times from 1765 to 1769 without success. The Chinese invasions allowed the new
Siamese kingdom based in Bangkok to repel the Burmese out of
Siam by the late 1770s.
King
Bodawpaya (1782-1819) failed repeatedly to reconquer
Siam in 1780s and 1790s. Bodawpaya did manage to capture the western kingdom of
Rakhine, which had been largely independent since the fall of Bagan, in 1784. Bodawpaya also formally annexed
Manipur, a rebellion-prone protectorate, in 1813.
King
Bagyidaw's (1819-1837) general
Maha Bandula put down a rebellion in
Manipur in 1819 and captured then independent kingdom of
Assam in 1819 (again in 1821). The new conquests brought the Burmese adjacent to the British India. The British defeated the Burmese in the
First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826). Burma had to cede
Assam,
Manipur,
Rakhine (Arakan) and
Tanintharyi (Tenessarim).
In 1852, the British attacked a much weakened Burma during a Burmese palace power struggle. After the
Second Anglo-Burmese War, which lasted 3 months, the British had captured the remaining coastal provinces:
Ayeyarwady,
Yangon and
Bago, naming the territories as
Lower Burma.
King
Mindon (1853-1878) founded
Mandalay in 1859 and made it his capital. He skillfully navigated the growing threats posed by the competing interests of Britain and France. In the process, Mindon had to renounce
Kayah (Karenni) states in 1875. His successor, King
Thibaw (1878-1885), was largely ineffectual. In 1885, the British, alarmed by the French conquest of neighboring
Laos, grabbed
Upper Burma. The
Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) lasted a mere one month insofar as capturing the capital
Mandalay was concerned. The
Burmese royal family was exiled to
Ratnagiri, India. British forces spent at least another four years pacifying the country – not only in the Burman heartland but also in the Shan,
Chin and
Kachin hill areas. By some accounts, minor insurrections didn't end until 1896.
Colonial era (1886-1948)
The United Kingdom began conquering Burma in 1824 and by 1886 had incorporated it into the
British Raj. Burma was administered as a province of
British India until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. To stimulate trade and facilitate changes, the British brought in
Indians and
Chinese, who quickly displaced the Burmese in urban areas. To this day
Yangon and
Mandalay have large
ethnic Indian populations. Railroads and schools were built, as well as a large number of prisons, including the infamous
Insein Prison, then as now used for
political prisoners. Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralyzed Yangon on occasion all the way until the 1930s. Much of the discontent was caused by a perceived disrespect for
Burmese culture and traditions, for example, what the British termed the Shoe Question: the colonizers' refusal to remove their shoes upon entering Buddhist temples or other holy places. In October 1919,
Eindawya Pagoda in Mandalay was the scene of violence when tempers flared after scandalized Buddhist monks attempted to physically expel a group of shoe-wearing British visitors. The leader of the monks was later sentenced to life imprisonment for attempted murder. Such incidents inspired the Burmese resistance to use
Buddhism as a rallying point for their cause. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement, and many died while protesting. One monk-turned-martyr was U Wisara, who died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest a rule that forbade him from wearing his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.
Eric Blair, better known as the writer
George Orwell, served in the
Indian Imperial Police in Burma for five years and wrote about
his experiences. An earlier writer with the same convoluted career path was
Saki. During the colonial period, intermarriage between European settlers and Burmese women, as well as between Anglo-Indians (who arrived with the British) and Burmese caused the birth of the
Anglo-Burmese community. This influential community was to dominate the country during colonial rule and through the mid 1960's.
On
1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered territory, independent of the Indian administration. The vote for keeping Burma in
India, or as a separate colony "khwe-yay-twe-yay" divided the populace, and laid the ground work for the insurgencies to come after independence. In the 1940s, the
Thirty Comrades, commanded by
Aung San, founded the
Burma Independence Army. The Thirty Comrades received training in
Japan.
During
World War II, Burma became a major frontline in the
Southeast Asian Theatre. The British administration collapsed ahead of the advancing Japanese troops, jails and asylums were opened and Rangoon was deserted except for the many
Anglo-Burmese and Indians who remained at their posts. A stream of some 300,000 refugees fled across the jungles into India; known as 'The Trek', all but 30,000 of those 300,000 arrived in India. Initially the Japanese-led
Burma Campaign succeeded and the British were expelled from most of Burma, but the British counter-attacked using primarily troops of the British Indian Army. By July 1945, the British had retaken the country. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, also served in the British Burma Army. In 1943, the Chin Levies and Kachin Levies were formed in the border districts of Burma still under British administration. The Burma Rifles fought as part of the
Chindits under General
Orde Wingate from 1943-1945. Later in the war, the Americans created
American-Kachin Rangers who also fought against the Japanese. Many others fought with the British
Special Operations Executive. The
Burma Independence Army under the command of
Aung San and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942-1944, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945.
In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated
Aung San and several cabinet members.
The geographical area Myanmar encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of
Lower Burma and
Upper Burma, and the
Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the
British.
In 1961,
U Thant, then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected
Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years. Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young
Aung San Suu Kyi.
Military rule (1962-present)
Democratic rule ended in 1962 when General
Ne Win led a military
coup d'état. He ruled for nearly 26 years and pursued policies under the rubric of the
Burmese Way to Socialism. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general, and almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalized or brought under government control (including the Boy Scouts). In an effort to consolidate power, General
Ne Win and many top generals resigned from the military and took civilian posts and, from 1974, instituted elections in a one party system. Between 1974 and 1988, Myanmar was effectively ruled by General
Ne Win through the
Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).
Almost from the beginning there were sporadic protests against the military rule, many of which were organized by students, and these were almost always violently suppressed by the government. On
July 7,
1962 the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University killing 15 students.
SLORC changed the country's official
English name from the "Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989.
In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years. The
National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of
Aung San Suu Kyi,
won 392 out of a total 489 seats, but the election results were annulled by SLORC, which refused to step down. Led by
Than Shwe since 1992, the military regime has made cease-fire agreements with most ethnic guerrilla groups. In 1992, SLORC unveiled plans to create a
new constitution through the National Convention, which began
9 January 1993. To date, this military-organized National Convention hasn't produced a new constitution despite well over ten years of operation. In 1997, the State Law and Order Restoration Council was renamed the
State Peace and Development Council (SPDC).
On
23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The National Convention continues to convene and adjourn. Many major political parties, particularly the NLD, have been absent or excluded, and little progress has been made.
In November 2006, the
International Labour Organization announced it'll be seeking "to prosecute members of the ruling Myanmar junta for crimes against humanity" over the continuous
forced labour of its citizens by the military at the
International Court of Justice. According to the
International Labor Organization (ILO), an estimated 800,000
people are subject to forced labour in Myanmar.
2007 protests and consequences
The August 2007 demonstrations were led by well-known dissidents, such as Min Ko Naing (with the
nom de guerre Conqueror of Kings), Su Su Nway (now in hiding) and others. The military quickly cracked down and still hasn't allowed the
International Red Cross to visit Min Ko Naing and others who are reportedly in
Insein Prison after being severely tortured. Reports have surfaced of at least one death, of activist Win Shwe, under interrogation.
On
19 September 2007, several hundred (possibly 2000 or more) monks staged a
protest march in the city of Sittwe. Larger protests in Rangoon and elsewhere ensued over the following days. Security became increasingly heavy handed, resulting in a number of deaths and injuries. By
28 September, internet access had been cut and journalists were reputedly warned not to report on protests. Internet access was restored by at least midnight of
5 October, Burmese time. Sources in Myanmar said on
6 October that the internet seems to be working from 22:00 to 05:00 local time.
On
October 13,
2007, the military junta of Myanmar made people march in a government rally, reportedly paying some participants 1000 kyat (approximately $0.80) each. Junta officials also approached local factories and demanded they provide 50 workers each; if they didn't, they were to be fined.
On
7 February 2008, SPDC announced that there will be referendum for the Constitution in May 2008, and Election by 2010.
Various global corporations have been criticized for profiting from the dictatorship by financing Myanmar's military junta.
World governments remain divided on how to deal with the military junta. Calls for further sanctions by
United Kingdom,
United States, and
France are opposed by neighboring countries; in particular,
China has stated its belief that "sanctions or pressure won't help to solve the issue".
Cyclone Nargis
On
May 3,
2008,
Cyclone Nargis devastated the country when winds of up to 250kph (150 mph) touched land in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the
Irrawaddy Division.
Recent reports estimate that more than 130,000 people are dead or missing from Cyclone Nargis that hit the country's Irrawaddy delta. Shari Villarosa, who leads the U.S. Embassy in
Yangon, said the number of dead could eventually exceed 140,800 because of illnesses and injury. Adds the
World Food Programme, "Some villages have been almost totally eradicated and vast rice-growing areas are wiped out."
The
United Nations projects that as many as 1 million were left homeless; and the
World Health Organization "has received reports of malaria outbreaks in the worst-affected area."
Yet in the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist regime complicated recovery efforts by delaying the entry of
United Nations planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies into the Southeast Asian nation. Similarly, the junta continues to reject the
United States offer to provide much-needed assistance, although on
May 13, the first U.S. military transport plane was allowed to land, bringing 14 tons of medical supplies, mosquito nets and blankets. The government's failure to permit entry for large-scale international relief efforts was described by the United Nations as "unprecedented." The Burmese Foreign Ministry stressed its capability in handling the aftermath of the cyclone and insisted that it wasn't ready to accept large-scale foreign assistance.
AP news stories state that foreign aid provided to disaster victims was modified to make it look like it came from the military regime, and state-run television continuously ran images of Gen. Than Shwe ceremonially handing out disaster relief.
More than a week after the disaster, only one out of 10 people who are homeless, injured or threatened by disease and hunger have received some kind of aid. The governmental regime only began to allow UN/international aid into the country for relief efforts after a meeting of heads of States in Singapore, headed by Singapore, who is the current chair of the ASEAN group.
According to British Foreign Secretary David Miliband, "A natural disaster is turning into a humanitarian catastrophe of genuinely epic proportions in significant part because of the malign neglect of the regime."
Donor nations, meeting Sunday in Myanmar, pressed the government hold to its promise and allow foreign aid workers access to several communities in which foreigners are not allowed, thus increasing the rate of receipt of aid to millions who where most affected by the cyclone. The United Nations secretary general, Ban Ki Moon, said that the government was "moving fast in the right direction." By opening greater access to foriegn aid, this will help the nation avoid a "second disaster" of disease.
List of historical capitals
» *
Amarapura
*
Ava » *
Bagan
*
Balo » *
Mandalay
*
Mrauk U » *
Naypyidaw
*
Rangoon (Yangon) » *
Sagaing
*
Shwebo » *
Thaton
Government and politics
The Union of Myanmar is governed by a strict
military dictatorship. The current head of state is
Senior General Than Shwe, who holds the posts of "Chairman of the
State Peace and Development Council" and "Commander in Chief of the Defense Services". General
Khin Nyunt was
prime minister until
19 October 2004, when he was replaced by
General Soe Win, after the purge of
Military Intelligence sections within the
Myanmar armed forces. The majority of ministry and cabinet posts are held by military officers, with the exceptions being the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, posts which are held by civilians.
Elected delegates in the 1990 People's Assembly election formed the
National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma (NCGUB), a
government-in-exile since December 1990, with the mission of restoring democracy. Dr.
Sein Win, a first cousin of
Aung San Suu Kyi, has held the position of prime minister of the NCGUB since its inception. The NCGUB has been outlawed by the military government.
Major political parties in the country are the
National League for Democracy and the
Shan Nationalities League for Democracy, although their activities are heavily regulated and suppressed by the military government. Many other parties, often representing ethnic minorities, exist. The military government allows little room for political organizations and has outlawed many political parties and underground student organizations. The military supported the
National Unity Party in the 1990 elections and, more recently, an organization named the
Union Solidarity and Development Association.
Several human rights organizations, including
Human Rights Watch and
Amnesty International, and the
American Association for the Advancement of Science have reported on human rights abuses by the military government. They have claimed that there's no independent
judiciary in Burma. The military government restricts Internet access through software-based censorship that limits the material citizens can access on-line.
Forced labour,
human trafficking, and
child labour are common. The military is also notorious for rampant use of sexual violence as an instrument of control, including systematic rapes and taking of sex slaves as porters for the military. A strong women's pro-democracy movement has formed in exile, largely along the Thai border and in Chiang Mai. There is a growing international movement to defend women's human rights issues.
In 1988, the army violently repressed protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression. On
8 August 1988, the military opened fire on demonstrators in what is known as
8888 Uprising and imposed martial law. However, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 People's Assembly elections. The election results were subsequently annulled by
Senior General Saw Maung's government. The
National League for Democracy, led by
Aung San Suu Kyi, won over 60% of the vote and over 80% of parliamentary seats in the 1990 election, the first held in 30 years. The military-backed
National Unity Party won less than 2% of the seats. Aung San Suu Kyi has earned international recognition as an activist for the return of democratic rule, winning the
Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. The ruling regime has repeatedly placed her under
house arrest. Despite a direct appeal by former UN Secretary General
Kofi Annan to
Senior General Than Shwe and pressure by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (
ASEAN), the military junta extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on
27 May 2006 under the 1975 State Protection Act, which grants the government the right to detain any persons on the grounds of protecting peace and stability in the country. The junta faces increasing pressure from the
United States and the
United Kingdom. Burma's situation was referred to the
UN Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. In September 2006, ten of the United Nations Security Council's 15 members voted to place Myanmar on the council's formal agenda. On
Independence Day,
4 January 2007, the government released 40
political prisoners, under a general amnesty, in which 2,831 prisoners were released. On
8 January 2007, UN Secretary-General
Ban Ki-moon urged the national government to free all political prisoners, including Aung San Suu Kyi. Three days later, on
11 January, five additional prisoners were released from prison. Dramatic change in the country's political situation remains unlikely, due to support from major regional powers such as
India,
Russia, and, in particular,
China.
In the annual
ASEAN Summit in January 2007, held in
Cebu,
Philippines, member countries failed to find common ground on the issue of Myanmar's lack of political reform. During the summit, ASEAN foreign ministers asked Myanmar to make greater progress on its roadmap toward democracy and national reconciliation. Some member countries contend that Myanmar's human rights issues are the country's own domestic affairs, while others contend that its poor human rights record is an international issue. The constitution would bar
Aung San Suu Kyi, from public office. 5 million citizens will vote May 24 in
Yangon and the
Irrawaddy delta, worst hit by
Cyclone Nargis.
Divisions and states
The country is divided into seven states (
pyine) and seven divisions (
yin). Divisions are predominantly
Bamar. States, in essence, are divisions which are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into
districts, which are further subdivided into
townships,
wards, and
villages.
Divisions
Ayeyarwady Division
Bago Division
Magway Division
Mandalay Division
Sagaing Division
Tanintharyi Division
Yangon Division
States
Chin State
Kachin State
Kayin (Karen) State
Kayah (Karenni) State
Mon State
Rakhine (Arakan) State
Shan State
Administrative divisions
Number of Districts, Townships, Cities/Towns, Wards, Village Groups and Villages in Myanmar as of December 31, 2001
Foreign relations and military
The country's foreign relations, particularly with Western nations, have been strained. The United States has placed a ban on new investments by U.S. firms, an import ban, and an arms embargo on the Union of Myanmar, as well as frozen military assets in the United States because of the military regime's ongoing human rights abuses, the ongoing detention of Nobel Peace Prize recipient Aung San Suu Kyi, and refusal to honor the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election. Similarly, the European Union has placed sanctions on Burma, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid. U.S. and European government sanctions against the military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in the country and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. The country has close relations with neighboring India and People's Republic of China with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country. The French oil company Total S.A. is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand despite the European Union's sanctions on the country. Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for the condoning and use of the country's civilian slavery to construct the named pipeline. Experts say that the human rights abuses along the gas pipeline are the direct responsibility of Total S.A. and its American partner Chevron with aid and implementation by the Tatmadaw. Prior to its acquisition by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar human rights lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount. There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers.
The country's armed forces are known as the Tatmadaw, which numbers 488,000. The Tatmadaw comprises the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force. The country ranked twelfth in the world for its number of active troops in service. The country imports most of its weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and India.
The country is building a research nuclear reactor near May Myo (Pyin Oo Lwin) with help from Russia. It is one of the signatories of the nuclear non-proliferation pact since 1992 and a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since 1957. The military junta had informed the IAEA in September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor. The research reactor outbuilding frame was built by ELE steel industries limited of Yangon and water from Anisakhan/BE water fall will be used for the reactor cavity cooling system.
ASEAN won't defend the country in any international forum following the military regime's refusal to restore democracy. In April 2007, the Malaysian Foreign Ministry parliamentary secretary Ahmad Shabery Cheek said Malaysia and other ASEAN members had decided not to defend Burma if the country's issue was raised for discussion at any international conference. "Now Myanmar has to defend itself if it's bombarded in any international forum," he said when winding up a debate at committee stage for the Foreign Ministry. He was replying to queries from opposition leader Lim Kit Siang on the next course of action to be taken by Malaysia and ASEAN with the military junta. Lim had said Malaysia must play a proactive role in pursuing regional initiatives to bring about a change in Myanmar and support efforts to bring the situation in Burma to the UN Security Council's attention.
Drug trade
The country is a corner of the Golden Triangle of opium production. Neither Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos or Thailand had any history of opium production until colonial times, yet from then until very recently, most of the world's heroin came from the Golden Triangle, including Burma.
The main player in the country's drug market is the United Wa State Army, ethnic fighters who control areas along the country's eastern border with Thailand, part of the infamous Golden Triangle. The Wa army, an ally of Myanmar's ruling military junta, was once the militant arm of the Beijing-backed Burmese Communist Party. Burma has been a significant cog in the transnational drug trade since World War II.
Poppy cultivation in the country decreased more than 80 percent from 1998 to 2006 following an eradication campaign in the Golden Triangle. Officials with the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime say opium poppy farming is now expanding. The number of hectares used to grow the crops in has bounced back 29 percent this year. A U.N. report cites corruption, poverty and a lack of government control as causes for the jump.
United Nations
In 1961, U Thant, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years. But in 2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called upon the government of Burma to end its systematic violations of human rights.
In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before the United Nations Security Council calling on the government of Myanmar to respect human rights and begin a democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the resolution, arguing that since there were no peace and security concerns raised by its neighbours, the question didn't belong in the Security Council when there were other more appropriate bodies to represent it, adding, "Ironically, should the Security Council adopt [thisresolution] ... the Human Rights Council wouldn't be able to address the situation in Myanmar while the Council remains seized with the matter." The issue had been forced onto the agenda against the votes of Russia and the China by the United States (veto power applies only to resolutions) claiming that the outflow from Burma of refugees, drugs, HIV-AIDS, and other diseases threatened international peace and security.
The following September after the uprisings began and the human rights situation deteriorated, the Secretary-General dispatched his special envoy for the region, Ibrahim Gambari, to meet with the government. After seeing most parties involved, he returned to New York and briefed the Security Council about his visit. During this meeting, the ambassador said that the country "indeed [hasexperienced] a daunting challenge. However, we've been able to restore stability. The situation has now returned to normalcy. Currently, people all over the country are holding peaceful rallies within the bounds of the law to welcome the successful conclusion of the national convention, which has laid down the fundamental principles for a new constitution, and to demonstrate their aversion to recent provocative demonstrations.
On 11 October the Security Council met and issued a statement and reaffirmed its "strong and unwavering support for the Secretary-General's good offices mission", especially the work by Ibrahim Gambari (During a briefing to the Security Council in November, Gambari admitted that no timeframe had been set by the Government for any of the moves that he'd been negotiating for.)
Throughout this period the World Food Program has continued to organize shipments from the Mandalay Division to the famine-struck areas to the north.
Human rights
Human rights violations
In a press release of December 16, 2005 the US State Department says UN involvement in Myanmar is essential. The US listed illicit narcotics, human rights abuses and political repression as serious problems that the UN needs to address.
In a landmark legal case, some human rights groups have sued the Unocal corporation, previously known as Union Oil of California and now part of the Chevron Corporation. They charge that since the early 1990s, Unocal has joined hands with dictators in Myanmar to turn thousands of citizens there into virtual slaves under brutality. Unocal, before being purchased, stated that they'd no knowledge or connection to these alleged actions although it continued working in Myanmar. This was a landmark case as this might be the first time that anybody has sued an American corporation in a U.S. court on the grounds that the company violated human rights in another country.
Karen minority
Evidence has been gathered suggesting that the Burmese regime has marked certain ethnic minorities such as the Karen for extermination or 'Burmisation'. This has received little attention from the international community, however, since it has been more subtle and indirect than the mass killings in places like Rwanda.
Economy
The country is one of the poorest nations in South Asia / Southeast Asia, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement and isolation. Myanmar's GDP grows at a rate of 2.9% annually – the lowest rate of economic growth in the Greater Mekong Subregion. The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalize all industries, with the exception of agriculture. In 1989, the government began decentralizing economic control. It has since liberalised certain sectors of the economy. Lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain heavily regulated. They have recently been exploited by foreign corporations and governments which have partnered with the local government to gain access to Burma's natural resources.
Burma was designated a least developed country in 1987. Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by the Tatmadaw. In recent years, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit. Many nations, including the United States and Canada, and the European Union, have imposed investment and trade sanctions on Burma. Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore, South Korea, India, and Thailand.
Modern economy
Today, the country lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the Thai border, where most illegal drugs are exported, and along the Ayeyarwady River. Railroads are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the late nineteenth century. Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas.
The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas.
The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the growing problems of the economy.
Inflation is a serious problem for the economy. In April 2007, the National League for Democracy organized a two-day workshop on the economy. The workshop concluded that skyrocketing inflation was impeding economic growth. "Basic commodity prices have increased from 30 to 60 percent since the military regime promoted a salary increase for government workers in April 2006," said Soe Win, the moderator of the workshop. "Inflation is also correlated with corruption." Myint Thein, an NLD spokesperson, added: "Inflation is the critical source of the current economic crisis."
The corruption watchdog organization Transparency International in its 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index released on September 26, 2007 ranked Myanmar the most corrupt country in the world, tied with Somalia.
Valley of Rubies
The Union of Myanmar's rulers depend on sales of precious stones such as sapphires, pearls and jade to fund their regime. Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems. Burma's "Valley of Rubies", the mountainous Mogok area, 200 km (125 miles) north of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires.
Tourism
Since 1992, the government has encouraged tourism in the country. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually.
Aung San Suu Kyi has requested that international tourists not visit Myanmar. The junta's forced labour programmes were focused around tourist destinations which have been heavily criticised for their human rights records.
Tourism has been promoted by a minority of advocacy groups as a method of providing economic benefit to Burmese civilians, and to avoid isolating the country from the rest of the world. "We believe that small-scale, responsible tourism can create more benefits than harm. So long as tourists are fully aware of the situation and take steps to maximise their positive impact and minimise the negatives, we feel their visit can be beneficial overall. Responsible tourists can help Burma primarily by bringing money to local communities and small businesses, and by raising awareness of the situation worldwide," states Voices for Burma, a pro-democracy advocate group.
Humanitarian aid
In April 2007, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) identified financial and other restrictions that the military government places on international humanitarian assistance. The GAO report, entitled "Assistance Programs Constrained in Burma", outlined the specific efforts of the government to hinder the humanitarian work of international organizations, including restrictions on the free movement of international staff within the country. The report notes that the regime has tightened its control over assistance work since former Prime Minister Khin Nyunt was purged in October 2004. The military junta passed guidelines in February 2006, which formalized these restrictive policies. According to the report, the guidelines require that programs run by humanitarian groups "enhance and safeguard the national interest" and that international organizations coordinate with state agents and select their Burmese staff from government-prepared lists of individuals. United Nations officials have declared these restrictions unacceptable.
2007 economic protests
The military junta detained eight people on Sunday, April 22, 2007 who took part in a rare demonstration in a Yangon suburb amid a growing military crackdown on protesters. A group of about ten protesters carrying placards and chanting slogans staged the protest Sunday morning in Yangon's Thingangyun township, calling for lower prices and improved health, education and better utility services. The protest ended peacefully after about 70 minutes, but plainclothes police took away eight demonstrators as some 100 onlookers watched. The protesters carried placards with slogans such as "Down with consumer prices." Some of those detained were the same protesters who took part in a downtown Yangon protest on February 22, 2007. That protest was one of the first such demonstrations in recent years to challenge the junta's economic mismanagement rather than its legal right to rule. The protesters detained in the February rally had said they were released after signing an acknowledgment of police orders that they shouldn't hold any future public demonstrations without first obtaining official permission.
The military government stated its intention to crack down on these human rights activists, according to an April 23, 2007, report in the country's official press. The announcement, which comprised a full page of the official newspaper, followed calls by human rights advocacy groups, including London-based Amnesty International, for authorities to investigate recent violent attacks on rights activists in the country.
Two members of Human Rights Defenders and Promoters, Maung Maung Lay, 37, and Myint Naing, 40, were hospitalized with head injuries following attacks by more than 50 people while the two were working in Hinthada township, Irrawaddy Division in mid-April. On Sunday, April 22, 2007, eight people were arrested by plainclothes police, members of the pro-junta Union Solidarity and Development Association, and the Pyithu Swan Arr Shin (a paramilitary group) while demonstrating peacefully in a Rangoon suburb. The eight protesters were calling for lower commodity prices, better health-care and improved utility services. Htin Kyaw, 44, one of the eight who also took part in an earlier demonstration in late February in downtown Yangon, was beaten by a mob, according to sources at the scene of the protest.
Reports from opposition activists have emerged in recent weeks saying that authorities have directed the police and other government proxy groups to deal harshly with any sign of unrest in Yangon. "This proves that there's no rule of law [inBurma]," the 88 Generation Students group said in a statement issued today.[Mon23 April 2007] "We seriously urge the authorities to prevent violence in the future and to guarantee the safety of every citizen."
As of 22 September 2007, the Buddhist monks have withdrawn spiritual services from all military personnel in a symbolic move that's seen as very powerful in such a deeply religious country as Myanmar. The military rulers seem at a loss as to how to deal with the demonstrations by the monks as using violence against monks would incense and enrage the people of Myanmar even further, almost certainly prompting massive civil unrest and perhaps violence. However, the longer the junta allows the protests to continue, the weaker the regime looks. The danger is that eventually the military government will be forced to act rashly and doing so will provoke the citizenry even more. Some international news agencies are referring to the uprising as a Saffron Revolution.
20,000 monks protest
Anti-government protests started on August 15, 2007, and have been ongoing. Thousands of Buddhist monks started leading protests on September 18, and were joined by Buddhist nuns on September 23. On September 24, 20,000 monks and nuns led 30,000 people in a protest march from the golden Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, past the offices of the opposition National League for Democracy (NLD) party. Comedian Zaganar and star Kyaw Thu brought food and water to the monks. On September 22, monks marched to greet Aung San Suu Kyi, a peace activist who has been under house arrest since 1990.
On September 25, 2,000 people defied threats from Myanmar's junta and marched to Shwedagon Pagoda amid army trucks and warning of Brigadier-General Thura Myint Maung not to violate Buddhist "rules and regulations." The following morning, various prominent protesters were arrested and troops barricaded Shwedagon Pagoda and attacked the 700 people within. Despite this, 5,000 monks continued to protest in Yangon. At least four deaths were reported after security forces fired on the crowds in Yangon. The junta announced that ten people had died in the crackdown on 27 September 2007 but foreign diplomatic sources in Yangon said more than ten Buddhist monks and demonstrators were dead. Later a badly-beaten Buddhist monk's body was found in Yangon River. A photo was released on an Internet site
run by a Norway-based group of exiled journalists. On September 27, security forces began raiding monasteries and arresting monks throughout the country. The security forces also fired on the nearly 50,000 people protesting in Yangon, killing nine people.
Internet access within the nation has been suspended, reportedly in an attempt to dampen international awareness of the situation. It has also been reported that troops have been specifically targeting people with cameras. The junta's violent response to peaceful protests has prompted international condemnation and calls for an immediate halt to the violence. In particular, Japanese Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda has demanded an explanation for the killing of Nagai. Ibrahim Gambari, the United Nations special envoy to Myanmar, has arrived in Naypyidaw and has met with junta leaders and Aung San Suu Kyi. Despite increasingly strong calls for peace, the junta continued to attack monks and raid monasteries through October 1.
By October 2 2007, thousands of monks were unaccounted for and their whereabouts unknown. Many monasteries are being patrolled by government troops. There are eyewitness accounts of injured protesters being burned alive by the military regime in a crematorium on the outskirts of Rangoon.
On October 31 2007 the monks started to protest again. 200 monks marched in Pakokku.
On November 29 2007 the Junta has shut down a Yangon monastery which served as a hospice for HIV/AIDS patients.
The Myanmar state media says that all but 91 of the nearly 3,000 arrested in the crackdown were released. The United Nations special envoy Ibrahim Gambari criticised the closing of the monastery, yet was assured that the crackdown would stop. He expects to return to Myanmar in December.
Demographics
Burma has a population of about 55 million. Current population figures are rough estimates because the last partial census, conducted by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs under the control of the military junta, was taken in 1983. No trustworthy nationwide census has been taken in Burma since 1931. There are over 600,000 registered migrant workers from Burma in Thailand, and millions more work illegally. Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's migrant workers. Myanmar has a population density of, one of the lowest in Southeast Asia. Refugee camps exist along Indian, Bangladeshi and Thai borders while several thousand are in Malaysia. Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 refugees from Myanmar, with the majority being Rohingya, Kayin, and Karenni.
Myanmar is home to four major linguistic families: Sino-Tibetan, Austronesian, Tai-Kadai, and Indo-European. Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They include Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Chin, and Chinese. The primary Tai-Kadai language is Shan. Mon, Palaung, and Wa are the major Austroasiatic languages spoken in Burma. The two major Indo-European languages are Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and English.
According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Myanmar's official literacy rate as of 2000 was 89.9%. Historically, Myanmar has had high literacy rates. To qualify for least developed country status by the UN in order to receive debt relief, Myanmar lowered its official literacy rate from 78.6% to 18.7% in 1987.
Myanmar is ethnically diverse. The government recognizes 135 distinct ethnic groups. While it's extremely difficult to verify this statement, there are at least 108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Myanmar, consisting mainly of distinct Tibeto-Burman peoples, but with sizable populations of Daic, Hmong-Mien, and Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) peoples. The Bamar form an estimated 68% of the population. Buddhism is practiced along with nat worship which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.
In a traditional village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation ceremony called shinbyu is the most important coming of age events for a boy when he enters the monastery for a short period of time. All boys of Buddhist family need to be a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty. It is compulsory for all boys of Buddhism. The duration can be at least one week. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies at the same time. Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace.
British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar. Myanmar's educational system is modelled after that of the United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as Yangon. Many ethnic minorities, particularly the Karen in the southeast, and the Kachin and Chin who populate the north and northwest, practice Christianity.
Language
Burmese, the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Myanmar, is related to Tibetan and to the Chinese languages. The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of honorifics and is age-oriented. Such persecution and targeting of civilians is particularly notable in Eastern Burma, where over 3000 villages have been destroyed in the past ten years.
Eighty-nine percent of the population embraces Buddhism (mostly Theravada), but other religions can be practised freely. Four percent of the population practices Christianity; 4 percent, Islam; 1 percent, traditional animistic beliefs; and 2 percent follow other religions, including Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, Chinese religions and the Bahá'í religion.
Education
There are 101 universities, 12 institutes, 9 degree colleges and 24 colleges in Myanmar, a total of 146 higher education institutions.
There are 10 Technical Training Schools, 23 nursing training schools, 1 sport academy and 20 midwifery schools.
There are 2047 Basic Education High Schools, 2605 Basic Education Middle Schools, 29944 Basic Education Primary Schools and 5952 Post Primary Schools. 1692 multimedia classrooms exist within this system.
One international school is acknowledged by WASC and College Board, it's Yangon International Educare Center(YIEC) in Yangon.
Media
Due to Myanmar's political climate, there are not many media companies in relation to the country's population, although a certain number exists. Some are privately owned, but all have to go through the censorship board.
Further Information
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